英語(yǔ)專業(yè)學(xué)期論文
英語(yǔ)專業(yè)作為一門人文學(xué)科，其本身鮮明的人文屬性決定了英語(yǔ)專業(yè)教育是融合人文主義教育、人文學(xué)科教育、人文素養(yǎng)教育與外語(yǔ)技能素質(zhì)的豐富教育體系下面是學(xué)習(xí)啦小編為大家整理的英語(yǔ)專業(yè)學(xué)期論文，供大家參考。
英語(yǔ)專業(yè)學(xué)期論文范文一：試析英語(yǔ)中定語(yǔ)和同位語(yǔ)以及幾種容易與其相混淆的語(yǔ)法現(xiàn)象
摘要：英語(yǔ)中的一些語(yǔ)法現(xiàn)象很容易含混。有的語(yǔ)法現(xiàn)象不同的語(yǔ)法學(xué)家有不同的提法，有不同的解釋。有的學(xué)生對(duì)此百思不得其解?，F(xiàn)就這些語(yǔ)法現(xiàn)象進(jìn)行簡(jiǎn)要的分析。
論文關(guān)鍵詞：定語(yǔ)和同位語(yǔ),同位語(yǔ),和主語(yǔ)補(bǔ)足語(yǔ),同位語(yǔ)和狀語(yǔ),前置,后置
1.1定語(yǔ)。
定語(yǔ)是用來修飾和限制名詞或代詞，說明名詞和代詞的性質(zhì)和特征的句子成分。作這種句子成分可以由形容詞、副詞、名詞、代詞、數(shù)詞、不定式、不定式短語(yǔ)、動(dòng)名詞、分詞、分詞短語(yǔ)、介詞短語(yǔ)，從句和句子來充當(dāng)。
1.1.1形容詞作定語(yǔ)是最普遍的現(xiàn)象，通常放在被修飾語(yǔ)的前面，特殊情況下放在后面。
(1)定語(yǔ)放在前面:
A: It’s a nice day to play table tennis, for it is not very hot today.
B: We are building a powerful socialist country.
由于這十分普遍，不必多舉例。
(2)形容詞作定語(yǔ)放在后面:
A.單詞作定語(yǔ)時(shí)，如果被修飾的名詞是由some, any, every, no等不定代詞構(gòu)成的復(fù)合詞時(shí)，放在后面。例如：
He wanted to find someone reliable to help him when he was in trouble.
Let, s go somewhere quiet to have a chat.
B.通常作表語(yǔ)用的形容詞，用作定語(yǔ)時(shí)必須后置：
On this committee alone there are three women.
Jang Zemin is one of the greatest statesman alive in china
The guests present included a few foreign newsmen.
C.在一些固定詞組，習(xí)慣上放在后面：
Secretary general(of the U.N.) (聯(lián)合國(guó))秘書長(zhǎng)
The president elect 當(dāng)選(未就職的)總統(tǒng)
Director-general(of the WHO) (世界衛(wèi)生組織)總干事
Court martial 軍事法庭
D.某些以-ible或-able結(jié)尾的形容詞用作定語(yǔ)，與every, the only ,或形容詞最高級(jí)連用來修飾一個(gè)名詞時(shí)也常放在所修飾的名詞之后。如：
We must defeat them in every way possible
This is the only reference book available here
The workers are trying their best to improve their productivity at the highest speed possible.
This is the best cottage imaginable.
1.1.2 副詞偶爾可以作定語(yǔ)，一般放在所修飾詞的后面：
My stay here is very unpleasant because of the serious air pollution due to the dump nearby.
The edifice around is the most magnificent one in the city.
On my way home last night, I’m afraid to be caught by a ghost.
I’ll come over to see you on my next day off.
間或也有放在前面的情況：
The above remarks are quite to the point.英語(yǔ)專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文
The then government paid little attention to that problem.
1.1.3名詞、形容詞型物主代詞、指示代詞、疑問代詞、不定代詞、數(shù)詞、動(dòng)名詞作定語(yǔ)時(shí)須放在前面。如：
The paper flower here is very beautiful.
There is no timetable for the reunification of Taiwan.
My brother is very unfortunate due to his poor family, bad luck in aggressiveness.
Because of theses reasons, I gave up the strong desire to pass the entrance postgraduate examination.
What kind of goal should you set in the future?
Both televisions has been stolen by thieves
One thousand and three hundred million Chinese people were striving for the prevention of SARS.
The sleeping car there is very comfortable.
1.1.4分詞作定語(yǔ)大多數(shù)情況下前置，有時(shí)根據(jù)習(xí)慣后置。
前置：
Quickly, he became the leading figure in the school by his dishonest way.
That is such a complicated problem that nobody can solve them easily.
后置：
They were very glad to have accepted the presents offered.
Most of the people singing were women.
He urged those concerned to take an active part in the work.
1.1.5不定式，不定式短語(yǔ)、分詞短語(yǔ)、從句作定語(yǔ)一般放在所修飾詞的后面。這里不贅述。
2.0同位語(yǔ)。
如果兩個(gè)句成分中其中一個(gè)成分進(jìn)一步解釋和說明另一個(gè)成分，且兩個(gè)成分處于等同的地位。那么這個(gè)成分被稱作同位語(yǔ)。被進(jìn)一步解釋和說明的對(duì)象一般是名詞和代詞。
2.1.1同位語(yǔ)多數(shù)情況下也是由名詞和代詞充當(dāng)。此外數(shù)詞.形容詞.不定式.動(dòng)名詞、Of 短語(yǔ).從句以及由一些引導(dǎo)語(yǔ)引導(dǎo)的句子等也可用來作同位語(yǔ)。
例如：
I have three wishes, health, career, and wealth.
We, the Chinese people, are determined to defeat new-discovered coronary viruses in the decisive battle against the SARS.
We all wanted to pass the entrance examination.
They two got master’s degree, we four only got bachelor’s degree. That’s a pity
The city of Chongqing is a world-famous city.
The art of writing is very important for a Chinese teacher.從句作同位語(yǔ)一般跟在單詞ides, fact, rumour, news, question, hope, belief, thought, doubt, way, probability, certainty, likelihood, evidence,成語(yǔ)on condition, on the supposition, on the ground(s), on the understanding, with the exception, in spite of the fact 等詞或詞組之后例如：
The news that he has passed the examination is only a rumour.
We are not investigating the question whether he is not trustworthy.
There can be no doubt that he will succeed finally.
The explanation that he couldn’t see the car is unsatisfactory.
She went to the meeting on the supposition that people would not assail her with questions
Their kind-hearted suggestion, to try my best to pass my postgraduate examination instead of continuing to do my job, has met some opposition in my family.
The first attempt, stealing at the hotel, was ruined because of the precaution of the detective.
2.2.2同位語(yǔ)一般緊跟在被修飾詞的后面，但有時(shí)可以隔開:
They are all my best friends
The five pens cost us five Yuan each.
We are none of us perfect.英語(yǔ)畢業(yè)論文網(wǎng)站
U.s. spread the rumor all around the world that Iraq has surrended.
同位語(yǔ)?？梢杂上铝性~語(yǔ)隔開：namely, viz. (that is), that is to say, to wit, in other words, or, or rather, for short, for example, say (比如，假定說) ，let us say (假定說) ，mostly，chiefly mainly, particularly, in particular, including等等。例如：
I am fond of romantic stories very much, especially the stories of Qiong Yao.
My blossom friend, that is to say, Mr.zhong is leaving me.
2.2.3偶爾也有放在前面情況。如職稱、作主語(yǔ)的是人稱代詞的同位語(yǔ)、由形容詞、過去分詞等擔(dān)任的同位語(yǔ)等均可以放在前面。例如：
Teacher Xiao is my best fellow townsman.
General Huolong is the most admirable one in my mind.
Always a diligent student, Wanglei is studying much harder than anybody else.
A skilful hand at improving tools, Xiaohe helped to make a new type of cutter.
A father of my lovely daughter, I am working and studying to my best of my ability.
Full of youthful vigor, he was diligent and modest.
Designed by Chinese engineers, the project was completed in only two years.
另外動(dòng)詞、形容詞、副詞等亦可有其同語(yǔ)。如：
We are going to improve ourselves in various fields, to try to get even higher marks than year.
She is more than pretty, that is, beautiful.
He is studying as hard as before, that is to say, not very hard.
3.0同位語(yǔ)和其他一些不同名稱的有些相似的語(yǔ)言成份由于內(nèi)含相仿，概念相似而容易混淆，很多時(shí)候不少學(xué)生區(qū)分不開來，往往被弄得暈頭轉(zhuǎn)向。
3.1同位語(yǔ)和定語(yǔ)的區(qū)別和聯(lián)系。
從上面可以看出它們的區(qū)別不在于位置的先后，也不在于用什么樣的詞和其他語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)來?yè)?dān)任，而在于他們的不同的定義。
不同的語(yǔ)法學(xué)家對(duì)同位語(yǔ)和定語(yǔ)下的定義不一樣。因此，要找到他們之間的區(qū)別，必須先明確他們的定義。著名語(yǔ)法學(xué)家張道真(1992：5)說：定語(yǔ)就是“用來修飾或限制名詞或代詞”的語(yǔ)法成分。對(duì)于同位語(yǔ)他是這樣定義的“一個(gè)名詞或代詞后面有時(shí)可以跟一個(gè)名詞(或起類似作用的其他東西)，對(duì)前者作進(jìn)一步解釋，說明它指的是誰(shuí)是什么等，叫做同位語(yǔ)。”(張道真，1992：499)本人認(rèn)為“進(jìn)一步解釋、說明”與其所說的“修飾或限制名詞或代詞”大同小異，故在張先生的《實(shí)用英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法》一書當(dāng)中把同位語(yǔ)歸于定語(yǔ)這個(gè)大目錄下。
根據(jù)這個(gè)定義，有時(shí)很難區(qū)分兩種語(yǔ)法現(xiàn)象。(當(dāng)然，新版的張道真的《實(shí)用英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法》對(duì)此的表述已經(jīng)和薄冰之語(yǔ)法書雷同)如：
the city of Philadelphia ,the art of revolution以及 ides, fact, rumour, news, question, hope, belief, thought, doubt, way, probability, certainty, likelihood, evidence等詞后面的that引導(dǎo)的從句。
現(xiàn)在我們來看一看語(yǔ)法家薄冰(1998: 459;2000: 473)對(duì)同位語(yǔ)的定義：“當(dāng)兩個(gè)指同一事物的句子成份放在同等位置，一個(gè)成分可被用來說明或解釋另一個(gè)成分，前者就叫做后者的同位語(yǔ)。”
薄冰對(duì)同位語(yǔ)的概念有更嚴(yán)格的限制，他所的同位語(yǔ)不同于定語(yǔ)，他沒有把二者歸為同一類。對(duì)同位語(yǔ)的定義體現(xiàn)在“同”字上，即同等位置，同一事物。這種定義更加明確一些。
但兩者有共同點(diǎn)：一般都是用來修飾或限制一個(gè)名詞或代詞，說明身分，范圍，具體內(nèi)容，都是為了把被修飾的名詞或代詞具體化，使意思更加明確。語(yǔ)法學(xué)家張道真正是抓住了它們的這一共同特征。
3.2同位語(yǔ)和主語(yǔ)補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)的區(qū)別和聯(lián)系。
同位語(yǔ)是對(duì)句中的另一個(gè)成分的解釋和說明，而主語(yǔ)補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)是對(duì)主語(yǔ)的補(bǔ)充說明，補(bǔ)足主語(yǔ)的意義。因此它們有共同的地方?，F(xiàn)舉例說明。
主語(yǔ)補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)：(和主語(yǔ)不等同，補(bǔ)充其意義的不足)
Tired and sleepy, I delivered a very bad lecture this afternoon.
Chen, only 1.30metres tall, won her third gold when she triumphed in the individual floor exercises.金融學(xué)論文
She stepped down the rostrum very nervous.
She was called the real heroine.
主語(yǔ)的同位語(yǔ):(和主語(yǔ)等同)
You students should study diligently if you want to realize you dream.
A black by birth, the writer inborn the traditional good manners passed from generation to generation.
從上面的例子我們可以看出，雖然它們有相似的地方，但是同位語(yǔ)強(qiáng)調(diào)的是等同——“同一事物、同一位置”。
3.3有的同位語(yǔ)和狀語(yǔ)相似，也可以說就是狀語(yǔ)。
有的時(shí)候同位語(yǔ)相當(dāng)于一個(gè)狀語(yǔ)，或者一個(gè)省略了某些語(yǔ)法成份的狀語(yǔ)從句。如形容詞、過去分詞等擔(dān)任的同位語(yǔ)(一些語(yǔ)法學(xué)家或稱之為非限制性定語(yǔ),也有一些語(yǔ)法學(xué)家稱之為主語(yǔ)補(bǔ)足語(yǔ))。如表示原因,讓步等。例：
Unselfish and eager to offer help to others (as he was unselfish and eager to help others), he won the heart-felt love of the local peasants.
Old, short and thin (because I was old, short and thin), I am afraid I can’t pass the interview in employment agency.
Full of energy and vigor (as he was full of energy and vigor), he won a lot of money by his heavy work.
Liberated in form only (as they were liberated in form), they white American man are still prejudiced against the Negroes and oppress them in many fields.
An even-tempered man (although he was an even-tempered), he was nevertheless extremely angry when he heard the news.
4.0結(jié)語(yǔ)。學(xué)習(xí)語(yǔ)法是為更好地滿足理解和表情達(dá)意的需要，有時(shí)同一個(gè)語(yǔ)法現(xiàn)象可以這樣說，也可以那樣說，不同時(shí)期，不同的語(yǔ)法家，或同一語(yǔ)法家在不同的時(shí)期的提法是不一定完全相同的。從不同的角度去理解，都是正確的。不必過分地鉆牛角尖。
參考書目：
[1]Caulicover, P.W. Syntax. New York: Academic Press [M]. 1982.
[2]Greenbaum, S. The English Language Today [M]. Oxford: Pergamon.1985.
[3]Leech, G. & Jan Svartvik. A Communicative Grammar [M]. of English.London: Longman. 1984.
[4]Murphy, F.R. English Grammar in Use [M]. Cambridge: University Press. 1974.
[5]Swan, M. Practical English Grammar [M]. Oxford: University Press.1980.
[6]Thomson, A. J. & A. V. Martinet. A Practical English Grammar [M]. Oxford: University Press.1979.
[7]張道真.實(shí)用英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法[M]..北京：商務(wù)印書館. 1992.
[8]張道真.實(shí)用英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法[M].. 外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社. 1995.
[9]薄冰.薄冰英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法[M].. 北京：開明出版社. 1998.
[10]薄冰.高級(jí)英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法[M].. 北京：世界知識(shí)出版社. 2000.
[11]呂瑞昌、喻去根等.漢英翻譯教程[M]..西安：陜西人民出版社. 1983.
英語(yǔ)專業(yè)學(xué)期論文范文二：試析法律英語(yǔ)文本中情態(tài)動(dòng)詞shall的用法及其翻譯
摘要：情態(tài)動(dòng)詞shall是英語(yǔ)法律文本中重復(fù)率很高的法律用詞，其具有指示性和施為性的法律含義，與普通英語(yǔ)中的含義有很大的不同。能否正確的理解和準(zhǔn)確的翻譯shall的用法和意思對(duì)于強(qiáng)調(diào)準(zhǔn)確性的英漢法律法規(guī)及法律合同意義重大，本文旨在探討法律英語(yǔ)中shall的基本用法。
論文關(guān)鍵詞：shall,法律英語(yǔ),法律翻譯
Shall是構(gòu)成英文法律文體的一個(gè)最主要的情態(tài)動(dòng)詞。當(dāng)shall作為情態(tài)動(dòng)詞與第三人稱一起使用時(shí)，它表示義務(wù)、職責(zé)、權(quán)利、命令、特權(quán)和許諾等。這一點(diǎn)是法律英語(yǔ)界人士和英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法專家所共知和公認(rèn)的。在大陸法系(包括中華法系)中沒有一個(gè)完全對(duì)等的詞匯在翻譯shall。在法律英語(yǔ)中shall的作用相當(dāng)于must, have to, be to (do), be required to，is等。但在將其翻譯成中文時(shí)，不但是英語(yǔ)系翻譯專業(yè)的學(xué)生感到難以把握，就連從事英語(yǔ)法律翻譯的老師、專業(yè)人員也覺得該詞難翻譯，常常下筆躊躇，莫衷一是。
shall的用法
shall在英文法律文本中主要表示“指示性”、“施為性”的含義和“命令”、“義務(wù)”和“權(quán)利”等。《蘭登書屋法律詞典》(Random House Webster’s Dictionary of the Law)對(duì)shall的法律解釋為以下三項(xiàng)：
a,在特指法規(guī)或司法解釋中表示命令、必要性和強(qiáng)制性(expressing mandate, necessity or compulsion, especially in statutory or judicial directives).
b,表示決心、肯定和強(qiáng)調(diào)(expressing determination, certainty and emphasis).
c, 表示計(jì)劃、意愿和預(yù)期(expressing futurity, especially plan, intention or expectation)。
從《蘭登書屋法律詞典》釋義中我們可以知道shall表示“命令”是，即指法律語(yǔ)言中的“指示性”;其表示“強(qiáng)制性”的含義指法律語(yǔ)言中的“施為性”;其表示“必要性”的含義指法律語(yǔ)言中的“義務(wù)”和“責(zé)任”。第二條解釋“決心”、“肯定”和“強(qiáng)調(diào)”是為了強(qiáng)調(diào)法律語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)勢(shì)，主要起修辭性的作用。第三條解釋一般用于法律合同等實(shí)務(wù)性法律文書中。[1]
2.1 shall表示“義務(wù)”和“責(zé)任”時(shí)通常被翻譯成“應(yīng)當(dāng)”、“應(yīng)”，有時(shí)被譯成“須”乃至“必須”。
例1. 間歇性的精神病人在精神正常的時(shí)候犯罪，應(yīng)當(dāng)負(fù)刑事責(zé)任。(《中華人民共和國(guó)刑法》第18條第二款)
Any person whose mental illness is of an intermittent nature shall bear criminal responsibility if he commits a crime when he is in a normal mental state. [2]
例2. 設(shè)立股份有限公司，應(yīng)當(dāng)具備下列條件：(《中華人民共和國(guó)公司法》第77條)
The following conditions shall be met if a company limited by shares is to be incorporated:英語(yǔ)教育畢業(yè)論文 [3]
例3. 人民法院發(fā)現(xiàn)受理的案件不屬于本院管轄的，應(yīng)當(dāng)移送有管轄權(quán)的人民法院，受移送的人民法院應(yīng)當(dāng)受理。受移送的人民法院認(rèn)為受移送的案件依照規(guī)定不屬于本院管轄的，應(yīng)該報(bào)請(qǐng)上級(jí)人民法院指定管轄，不得再自行移送。(《中華人民共和國(guó)民事訴訟法》第36條)
If a People’s Court finds that a case is has entertained is not under its jurisdiction, it shall refer the case to the People’s Court that has jurisdiction over the case. The People’s Court to which a case has been referred shall entertain the case, and if it considers that, according to the relevant regulations, the case referred to it is not under its jurisdiction, it shall report to a superior People’s Court for the designation of jurisdiction and shall not independently refer the case again to another People’s Court. [4]
例4. 行政長(zhǎng)官缺位時(shí)，應(yīng)在六個(gè)月內(nèi)依本法第四十五條的規(guī)定產(chǎn)生新的行政長(zhǎng)官。行政長(zhǎng)官缺位期間的職務(wù)代理，依照上款規(guī)定辦理。(《中華人民共和國(guó)香港特別行政區(qū)基本法》第53條第二款)
In the event that the office of Chief Executive becomes vacant, a new Chief executive shall be selected within six months in accordance with the provisions of Article 45 of this Law. During the period of vacancy, his or her duties shall be assumed according to the provisions of the preceding paragraph. [5]
例5. 眾議院由各州人民每?jī)赡赀x舉產(chǎn)生的眾議員組成。每個(gè)州的選舉人須具備該州州議會(huì)人數(shù)最多一院選舉人所必需的資格。
(《美利堅(jiān)合眾國(guó)憲法》第1條第二款)
The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. [6]
例6. 進(jìn)出境運(yùn)輸工具、貨物、物品，必須通過設(shè)立海關(guān)的地點(diǎn)進(jìn)境或出境(《中華人民共和國(guó)海關(guān)法》第8條)
All inward and outward means of transport, goods and articles shall enter or leave the territory at a place where there is a Customs office. [7]
2.2 shall在中文文本中“不譯”的情況
2.2.1 在具有較長(zhǎng)實(shí)效的一般性法律條文中(如憲法、刑法、民法等較穩(wěn)定的法律)。因?yàn)榱⒎ㄕ呋蚪y(tǒng)治者總希望他們制定的法律不僅要求其實(shí)施對(duì)象過去遵守、現(xiàn)在遵守，而且將來也遵守。所以法律條文的英文表達(dá)形式跟真理、自然法則、定律的語(yǔ)言表現(xiàn)形式一樣，主句動(dòng)詞時(shí)態(tài)通常都采用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)。此外，法律本身就有“律人”的作用，即使條文中沒有出現(xiàn)“應(yīng)當(dāng)”、“應(yīng)”、“須”、“必須”等帶有強(qiáng)制意味的助動(dòng)詞，它仍然對(duì)其實(shí)施對(duì)象有制約作用。例如：
例7. 對(duì)任何人犯罪，在適用法律上一律平等。不允許任何人有超越法律的特權(quán)。(《中華人民共和國(guó)刑法》第4條)
The law shall be equally applied to anyone who commits a crime. No one shall have the privilege of transcending the law. [8]
例8. 香港居民在法律面前一律平等。(《中華人民共和國(guó)香港特別行政區(qū)基本法》第25條)
All Hong Kong residents shall be equal before the law. [9]
例9. 單位犯罪的，對(duì)單位判處罰金，并對(duì)其直接負(fù)責(zé)的主管人員和其他直接責(zé)任人員判處刑罰。本法分則和其他法律另有規(guī)定的，依照規(guī)定。(《中華人民共和國(guó)刑法》第31條)
Where a unit commits a crime, it shall be fined, and the persons who are directly in charge and the other persons who are directly responsible for the crime shall be given criminal punishment. Where it is otherwise provided for in the Specific Provisions of this Law or in other laws, those provisions shall prevail.遠(yuǎn)程品學(xué)堂 [10]
2.2.2 在法律和普通合約條文中，當(dāng)shall 之后所跟的動(dòng)詞本身就能表達(dá)權(quán)利、義務(wù)或責(zé)任以及主句的基本結(jié)構(gòu)為“shall + be + predicative(表語(yǔ))”時(shí)，shall通常也是不譯的。[11]
例10 死刑只適用于罪行極其嚴(yán)重的犯罪分子。(《中華人民共和國(guó)刑法》第48條)
The death penalty shall only be applied to criminals who have committed extremely serious crimes. [12]
例11. 公司股東會(huì)或者股東大會(huì)、董事會(huì)的決議內(nèi)容違反法律、行政法規(guī)的無效。(《中華人民共和國(guó)公司法》第22條)
The resolution adopted by the shareholders assembly or the shareholders general assembly or the board of directors of a company, which in content violates laws or administrative regulations, shall be invalid. [13]
例12. 中央人民政府負(fù)責(zé)管理與香港特別行政區(qū)有關(guān)的外交事務(wù)。(《中華人民共和國(guó)香港特別行政區(qū)基本法》第13條)
The Central People's Government shall be responsible for the foreign affairs relating to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. [14]
例13. 香港特別行政區(qū)享有獨(dú)立的司法權(quán)和終審權(quán)。(《中華人民共和國(guó)香港特別行政區(qū)基本法》第19條)
The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall be vested with independent judicial power, including that of final adjudication. [15]
2.3 shall用于表示“決心”、“肯定”和“強(qiáng)調(diào)”是為了增強(qiáng)法律語(yǔ)言崇高、莊嚴(yán)的意味，主要起修辭性的作用，以便給法律帶來更為強(qiáng)烈的權(quán)威感。[16]
“Shall”可用于第一人稱表示強(qiáng)烈的“決心”。這是其強(qiáng)調(diào)的用法，含有誓約或承諾的以為。如：在二戰(zhàn)期間，美國(guó)四星上將道格拉斯·麥克阿瑟從菲律賓撤退后說：“I shall return.”(我會(huì)回來的。)這個(gè)經(jīng)典式的短句就是一個(gè)承諾和一道命令，就是麥克阿瑟將軍的鋼鐵誓言。
Shall在第二人稱為單數(shù)時(shí)也可以表示強(qiáng)烈的修辭色彩。最為西方人熟悉的當(dāng)屬《圣經(jīng)》這部西方最為重要的經(jīng)典著作，其所使用的語(yǔ)言也極有影響力。例如在《出埃及記》的第20章中，摩西在西奈山上從上帝那里接受了“十誡”，其中有“You shall not murder”(不可殺人), “You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.”(不可作假見證)。在新約《馬太福音》第22章“最大的誡命”中，耶穌說：“You shall love your neighbor as yourself.”(要愛人如己)
一位著名的加拿大文學(xué)批評(píng)家Northrup Frye認(rèn)為《圣經(jīng)》的簡(jiǎn)明代表莊重，而非平淡，更不是幼稚，因其簡(jiǎn)明才更具權(quán)威性。這種不加任何修飾的語(yǔ)言才能更加清晰明確地傳達(dá)上帝的旨意，也使每一條誡命更像一道命令，從而更具有神圣不可侵犯的尊嚴(yán)。[17]
加拿大不列顛哥倫比亞大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教授Frederick Bowers把“shall”的這種表修辭的用法分成三種方式：“‘shall’用于第一人稱將來時(shí)表示‘決心’的意思非法地(illegally)轉(zhuǎn)到第三人稱表示義務(wù)的意思以產(chǎn)生修辭效果。”“shall”的這個(gè)用法是比擬那種依附于《圣經(jīng)》戒律式修辭的表達(dá)方式。“伴隨著宣示義務(wù)的這種意識(shí)，情態(tài)動(dòng)詞‘shall’業(yè)已取得了一種一般含義，那就是表示要給人以深刻的印象……實(shí)際上，‘shall’非常普遍地用作一種圖騰以制造出某種法律色彩。”
“Shall”在立法起草中的用法也是會(huì)因其歧義的。因?yàn)樗赡芎斜硎玖x務(wù)的意思，或者僅僅表示修辭之意。在兩者之間存在重疊區(qū)，在大多數(shù)情況下，兩者并不是黑白分明的。[18]也就是說，在大多數(shù)情況下，“shall”在具體法律中的用法究竟是完全表示義務(wù)，還是有修辭性質(zhì)并不是很清楚。
筆者經(jīng)過對(duì)比發(fā)現(xiàn)：在最權(quán)威的、經(jīng)過數(shù)次修改但仍待完善的《中華人民共和國(guó)憲法》的英譯本中，不少憲法法條都沒有譯成shall(見例16和例18);而同樣是非常權(quán)威的《中華人民共和國(guó)香港特別行政區(qū)基本法》中，不少法條都用了shall來翻譯(見例17和例19)。
例14. 在《Taxpayer Browsing Protection Act》(《納稅人瀏覽保護(hù)法》)SEC7213A: “State And Other Employees—It shall be unlawful for any person willfully to inspect, except as authorized in this title, any return or return information acquired by such person or another person under a provision of section 6103 referred to in section 7213A……”(對(duì)任何人來說它會(huì)(shall)是非法的……)。高中語(yǔ)文教學(xué)論文這是一個(gè)可能帶有更多修辭意義的“shall”的用法的例子。如果換成“對(duì)任何人來說它是(is)非法的……”，意思也不會(huì)全然改變。
例15. 在該法SEC7213A(b)(1)中 “any violation of subsection (a) shall be punishable……” (任何分節(jié)(a)的違反都將(shall)是可懲罰的……)。如果我們把此句中的“shall”換為“is”， “any violation of subsection (a) is punishable……”(任何分節(jié)(a)的違反都(is)是可懲罰的……)我們看不出兩者之間表述有什么差別，所以此處“shall”可能主要是修辭性的。
Shall在法律起草中的用法，主要的問題就是要判斷它是表示義務(wù)，還是僅僅是修辭性的。
例16. 中華人民共和國(guó)公民的住宅不受侵犯。禁止非法搜查或者非法侵入公民的住宅。(《中華人民共和國(guó)憲法》第三十九條)
The residences of citizens of the People's Republic of China are inviolable. Unlawful search of, or intrusion into, a citizen's residence is prohibited. [19]
例17. 香港居民的住宅和其他房屋不受侵犯。禁止任意或非法搜查、侵入居民的住宅和其他房屋。(《中華人民共和國(guó)香港特別行政區(qū)基本法》第29條)
The homes and other premises of Hong Kong residents shall be inviolable. Arbitrary or unlawful search of, or intrusion into, a resident's home or other premises shall be prohibited. [20]
例18. 中華人民共和國(guó)公民有言論、出版、集會(huì)、結(jié)社、游行、示威的自由。(《中華人民共和國(guó)憲法》第三十五條)
Citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of procession and of demonstration. [21]
例19. 香港居民享有言論、新聞、出版的自由，結(jié)社、集會(huì)、游行、示威的自由，組織和參加工會(huì)、罷工的權(quán)利和自由。(《中華人民共和國(guó)香港特別行政區(qū)基本法》第27條)
Hong Kong residents shall have freedom of speech, of the press and of publication; freedom of association, of assembly, of procession and of demonstration; and the right and freedom to form and join trade unions, and to strike. [22]
3. 小結(jié)
a，shall表示“義務(wù)”和“責(zé)任”時(shí)通常被翻譯成“應(yīng)當(dāng)”、“應(yīng)”，有時(shí)則“不譯”。
b, shall用于表示“決心”、“肯定”和“強(qiáng)調(diào)”是為了增強(qiáng)法律語(yǔ)言崇高、莊嚴(yán)的意味，主要起修辭性的作用，用shall或者用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)沒有本質(zhì)區(qū)別。
c，shall在法律文本中很少表“預(yù)期”。
參考文獻(xiàn)：
[1] 李劍波, 種夏.法律英語(yǔ)中情態(tài)動(dòng)詞shall和may的翻譯[J]. US-China Foreign Language, 2006(6)：39
[2] [8] [10] [12]《中華人民共和國(guó)刑法》(中英對(duì)照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
[3] [13]《中華人民共和國(guó)公司法》(中英對(duì)照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
[4] 《中華人民共和國(guó)民事訴訟法》(中英對(duì)照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
[5] [9] [14] [15] [20] [22]《中華人民共和國(guó)香港特別行政區(qū)基本法》(中英對(duì)照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
[6]《美利堅(jiān)合眾國(guó)憲法》http://www.dffy.com/faxuejieti/jd/200502/20050203215123.htm
[7]《中華人民共和國(guó)海關(guān)法》(中英對(duì)照). 北京：法律出版社.2007.
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